{"id":169927,"date":"2020-10-12T12:01:05","date_gmt":"2020-10-12T11:01:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/?p=169927"},"modified":"2020-10-04T09:44:15","modified_gmt":"2020-10-04T08:44:15","slug":"friedrich-nietzsche-15-oct-1844-25-aug-1900-5","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/2020\/10\/friedrich-nietzsche-15-oct-1844-25-aug-1900-5\/","title":{"rendered":"Friedrich Nietzsche (15 Oct 1844 \u2013 25 Aug 1900)"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"\"<\/a>Friedrich Nietzsche,\u00a0\u00a0(born October 15, 1844,\u00a0R\u00f6cken, Saxony<\/a>, Prussia<\/a> [Germany]\u2014died August 25, 1900,\u00a0Weimar<\/a>, Thuringian States),\u00a0German classical scholar, philosopher, and critic of culture<\/a>, who became one of the most-influential of all modern thinkers. His attempts to unmask the motives that underlie traditional Western religion<\/a>, morality<\/a>, and philosophy<\/a> deeply affected generations of theologians, philosophers, psychologists, poets, novelists, and playwrights. He thought<\/a> through the consequences of the triumph of the Enlightenment<\/a>\u2019s secularism, expressed in his observation that \u201cGod is dead,\u201d in a way that determined the agenda for many of Europe<\/a>\u2019s most-celebrated intellectuals after his death. Although he was an ardent foe of nationalism<\/a>, anti-Semitism<\/a>, and power politics, his name was later invoked by fascists to advance the very things he loathed.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Early years<\/strong><\/p>\n

Nietzsche\u2019s home was a stronghold of Lutheran<\/a> piety. His paternal grandfather had published books defending Protestantism<\/a> and had achieved the ecclesiastical position of superintendent; his maternal grandfather was a country parson; his father, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, was appointed pastor at R\u00f6cken by order of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, after whom Friedrich Nietzsche was named. His father died in 1849, before Nietzsche\u2019s fifth birthday, and he spent most of his early life in a household consisting of five women: his mother, Franziska, his younger sister, Elisabeth, his maternal grandmother, and two aunts.<\/p>\n

In 1850 the family moved to Naumburg<\/a> on the Saale River, where Nietzsche attended a private preparatory school, the Domgymnasium. In 1858 he was admitted to Schulpforta, Germany\u2019s leading Protestant boarding school. He excelled academically and received an outstanding classical education there. Having graduated in 1864, he went to the University of Bonn to study theology<\/a> and classical philology<\/a>. Despite efforts to take part in the university\u2019s social life, the two semesters at Bonn were a failure, owing chiefly to acrimonious quarrels between his two leading classics professors, Otto Jahn and Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl<\/a>. Nietzsche sought refuge in music, writing a number of compositions strongly influenced by Robert Schumann<\/a>, the German Romantic<\/a> composer. In 1865 he transferred to the University of Leipzig<\/a>, joining Ritschl, who had accepted an appointment there.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche prospered under Ritschl\u2019s tutelage in Leipzig<\/a>. He became the only student ever to publish in Ritschl\u2019s journal, Rheinisches Museum<\/em> (\u201cRhenish Museum\u201d). He began military service in October 1867 in the cavalry company of an artillery regiment, sustained a serious chest injury while mounting a horse in March 1868, and resumed his studies in Leipzig in October 1868 while on extended sick leave from the military. During the years in Leipzig, Nietzsche discovered Arthur Schopenhauer<\/a>\u2019s philosophy, met the great operatic composer Richard Wagner<\/a>, and began his lifelong friendship with fellow classicist Erwin Rohde<\/a> (author of Psyche<\/em>).<\/p>\n

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\u00a9 Photos.com\/Jupiterimages<\/p><\/div>\n

Basel years (1869\u201379)<\/strong><\/p>\n

When a professorship in classical philology<\/a> fell vacant in 1869 in Basel<\/a>, Switzerland<\/a>, Ritschl recommended Nietzsche with unparalleled praise. He had completed neither his doctoral thesis nor the additional dissertation required for a German degree; yet Ritschl assured the University of Basel<\/a> that he had never seen anyone like Nietzsche in 40 years of teaching and that his talents were limitless. In 1869 the University of Leipzig conferred the doctorate without examination or dissertation on the strength of his published writings, and the University of Basel appointed him extraordinary professor of classical philology. The following year Nietzsche was promoted to ordinary professor.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche obtained a leave to serve as a volunteer medical orderly in August 1870, after the outbreak of the Franco-German War<\/a>. Within a month, while accompanying a transport of wounded, he contracted dysentery<\/a> and diphtheria<\/a>, which ruined his health permanently. He returned to Basel in October to resume a heavy teaching load, but as early as 1871 ill health prompted him to seek relief from the stultifying chores of a professor of classical philology; he applied for the vacant chair of philosophy and proposed Rohde as his successor, all to no avail.<\/p>\n

During those early Basel years Nietzsche\u2019s ambivalent friendship with Wagner<\/a> ripened, and he seized every opportunity to visit Richard and his wife, Cosima. Wagner appreciated Nietzsche as a brilliant professorial apostle, but Wagner\u2019s increasing exploitation of Christian motifs, as in Parsifal<\/em> (1882), coupled with his chauvinism and anti-Semitism proved to be more than Nietzsche could bear. By 1878 the breach between the two men had become final.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche\u2019s first book, Die Geburt der Trag\u00f6die aus dem Geiste der Musik<\/em> (1872; The Birth of Tragedy<\/a> from the Spirit of Music<\/em>), marked his emancipation from the trappings of classical scholarship. A speculative rather than exegetical work, it argued that Greek tragedy<\/a> arose out of the fusion of what he termed Apollonian<\/a> and Dionysian<\/a> elements\u2014the former representing measure, restraint, and harmony<\/a> and the latter representing unbridled passion\u2014and that Socratic<\/a> rationalism and optimism spelled the death of Greek tragedy<\/a>. The final 10 sections of the book are a rhapsody about the rebirth of tragedy from the spirit of Wagner\u2019s music. Greeted by stony silence at first, it became the object of heated controversy on the part of those who mistook it for a conventional work of classical scholarship. It was undoubtedly \u201ca work of profound imaginative insight, which left the scholarship of a generation toiling in the rear,\u201d as the British classicist F.M. Cornford<\/a> wrote in 1912. It remains a classic in the history of aesthetics<\/a> to this day.<\/p>\n

Having requested and received a sick leave, Nietzsche in 1877 set up house with his sister and his friend Peter Gast (Johann Heinrich K\u00f6selitz), and in 1878 his aphoristic Menschliches, Allzumenschliches<\/em> (Human, All-Too-Human<\/a><\/em>) appeared. Because his health deteriorated steadily, he resigned his professorial chair on June 14, 1879, and was granted a pension of 3,000 Swiss francs per year for six years.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>Decade of isolation and creativity (1879\u201389)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Apart from the books Nietzsche wrote between 1879 and 1889, it is doubtful that his life held any intrinsic interest. Seriously ill, half-blind, in virtually unrelenting pain, he lived in boarding houses in Switzerland, the French Riviera, and Italy, with only limited human contact.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche\u2019s acknowledged literary and philosophical masterpiece in biblical-narrative form, Also sprach Zarathustra<\/em> (Thus Spoke Zarathustra<\/a><\/em>), was published between 1883 and 1885 in four parts, the last of which was a private printing at his own expense. As with most of his works, it received little attention. His attempts to set forth his philosophy in more-direct prose, in the publications in 1886 of Jenseits von Gut und B\u00f6se<\/em> (Beyond Good and Evil<\/a><\/em>) and in 1887 of Zur Genealogie der Moral<\/em> (On the Genealogy of Morals<\/a><\/em>), also failed to win a proper audience.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche\u2019s final lucid year, 1888, was a period of supreme productivity. He wrote and published Der Fall Wagner<\/em> (The Case of Wagner<\/em>) and wrote a synopsis of his philosophy, Die G\u00f6tzen-D\u00e4mmerung<\/em> (Twilight of the Idols<\/em>), Der Antichrist<\/em> (The Antichrist<\/em>), Nietzsche contra Wagner<\/em>, and Ecce Homo<\/a><\/em>, a reflection on his own works and significance. Twilight of the Idols<\/em> appeared in 1889; The Antichrist<\/em> and Nietzsche contra Wagner<\/em> were not published until 1895, the former mistakenly as book one of The Will to Power<\/a><\/em>; and Ecce Homo<\/em> was withheld from publication until 1908, 20 years after its composition.<\/p>\n

Collapse and misuse<\/strong><\/p>\n

Nietzsche collapsed in the streets of Turin<\/a>, Italy, in January 1889, having lost control of his mental faculties completely. Bizarre but meaningful notes he sent immediately after his collapse brought his friend Franz Overbeck<\/a>, a Christian theologian, to Italy to return Nietzsche to Basel. Nietzsche spent the last 11 years of his life in total mental darkness, first in a Basel asylum, then in Naumburg under his mother\u2019s care and, after her death in 1897, in Weimar in his sister\u2019s care. He died in 1900. Although the cause of his breakdown remains uncertain, informed opinion favours a diagnosis of atypical general paralysis caused by dormant tertiary syphilis<\/a>.<\/p>\n

The association of Nietzsche\u2019s name with Adolf Hitler<\/a> and fascism<\/a> owes much to the use made of his works by his sister, Elisabeth<\/a>. She had married a leading chauvinist and anti-Semite, Bernhard F\u00f6rster, and after his suicide in 1889 she worked diligently to refashion Nietzsche in F\u00f6rster\u2019s image. Elisabeth maintained ruthless control over Nietzsche\u2019s literary estate and, dominated by greed, produced collections of his \u201cworks\u201d consisting of discarded notes, such as Der Wille zur Macht<\/em> (1901; The Will to Power<\/a><\/em>). She also committed petty forgeries. Generations of commentators were misled. Equally important, her enthusiasm for Hitler linked Nietzsche\u2019s name with that of the dictator in the public mind<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche\u2019s mature philosophy<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a><\/strong>Nietzsche\u2019s writings fall into three well-defined periods. The early works, The Birth of Tragedy<\/em> and the four Unzeitgem\u00e4sse Betrachtungen<\/em> (1873; Untimely Meditations<\/a><\/em>), are dominated by a Romantic perspective influenced by Schopenhauer and Wagner. The middle period, from Human, All-Too-Human<\/em> up to The Gay Science<\/em>, reflects the tradition of French aphorists. It extols reason<\/a> and science<\/a>, experiments with literary genres, and expresses Nietzsche\u2019s emancipation from his earlier Romanticism<\/a> and from Schopenhauer and Wagner. Nietzsche\u2019s mature philosophy emerged after The Gay Science<\/em>.<\/p>\n

In his mature writings Nietzsche was preoccupied by the origin and function of values<\/a> in human life. If, as he believed, life neither possesses nor lacks intrinsic value and yet is always being evaluated, then such evaluations can usefully be read as symptoms of the condition of the evaluator. He was especially interested, therefore, in a probing analysis and evaluation of the fundamental cultural values of Western philosophy<\/a>, religion<\/a>, and morality<\/a>, which he characterized as expressions of the ascetic ideal.<\/p>\n

The ascetic ideal is born when suffering becomes endowed with ultimate significance. According to Nietzsche, the Judeo-Christian tradition, for example, made suffering tolerable by interpreting it as God\u2019s intention<\/a> and as an occasion for atonement<\/a>. Christianity<\/a>, accordingly, owed its triumph to the flattering doctrine of personal immortality<\/a>, that is, to the conceit that each individual\u2019s life and death have cosmic significance. Similarly, traditional philosophy expressed the ascetic ideal when it privileged soul over body, mind<\/a> over senses<\/a>, duty over desire, reality over appearance, the timeless over the temporal. While Christianity<\/a> promised salvation<\/a> for the sinner who repents, philosophy held out hope for salvation, albeit secular, for its sages. Common to traditional religion<\/a> and philosophy was the unstated but powerful motivating assumption that existence requires explanation, justification, or expiation. Both denigrated experience in favour of some other, \u201ctrue\u201d world. Both may be read as symptoms of a declining life, or life in distress.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche\u2019s critique of traditional morality centred on the typology of \u201cmaster\u201d and \u201cslave\u201d morality. By examining the etymology of the German words gut <\/em>(\u201cgood\u201d), schlecht<\/em> (\u201cbad\u201d), and b\u00f6se<\/em> (\u201cevil\u201d), Nietzsche maintained that the distinction between good and bad was originally descriptive, that is, a nonmoral reference to those who were privileged, the masters, as opposed to those who were base, the slaves. The good\/evil contrast arose when slaves avenged themselves by converting attributes of mastery into vices. If the favoured, the \u201cgood,\u201d were powerful, it was said that the meek would inherit the earth. Pride became sin<\/a>. Charity, humility, and obedience replaced competition, pride, and autonomy. Crucial to the triumph of slave morality was its claim to being the only true morality. That insistence on absoluteness is as essential to philosophical as to religious ethics<\/a>. Although Nietzsche gave a historical genealogy of master and slave morality, he maintained that it was an ahistorical typology of traits present in everyone.<\/p>\n

\u201cNihilism<\/a>\u201d was the term Nietzsche used to describe the devaluation of the highest values posited by the ascetic ideal. He thought of the age in which he lived as one of passive nihilism<\/a>, that is, as an age that was not yet aware that religious and philosophical absolutes had dissolved in the emergence of 19th-century positivism<\/a>. With the collapse of metaphysical and theological foundations and sanctions for traditional morality only a pervasive sense of purposelessness and meaninglessness would remain. And the triumph of meaninglessness is the triumph of nihilism: \u201cGod is dead.\u201d Nietzsche thought, however, that most people could not accept the eclipse of the ascetic ideal and the intrinsic meaninglessness of existence but would seek supplanting absolutes to invest life with meaning. He thought the emerging nationalism<\/a> of his day represented one such ominous surrogate god, in which the nation-state would be invested with transcendent value and purpose. And just as absoluteness of doctrine had found expression in philosophy and religion, absoluteness would become attached to the nation-state with missionary fervour. The slaughter of rivals and the conquest of the earth would proceed under banners of universal brotherhood, democracy<\/a>, and socialism<\/a>. Nietzsche\u2019s prescience here was particularly poignant, and the use later made of him especially repellent. For example, two books were standard issue for the rucksacks of German soldiers during World War I<\/a>, Thus Spoke Zarathustra<\/em> and the Gospel According to John<\/a>. It is difficult to say which author was more compromised by that gesture.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche often thought of his writings as struggles with nihilism, and apart from his critiques of religion, philosophy, and morality he developed original theses that have commanded attention, especially perspectivism<\/a>, the will to power, eternal recurrence<\/a>, and the superman<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Perspectivism<\/a> is a concept which holds that knowledge is always perspectival, that there are no immaculate perceptions, and that knowledge from no point of view is as incoherent a notion as seeing from no particular vantage point. Perspectivism also denies the possibility of an all-inclusive perspective, which could contain all others and, hence, make reality available as it is in itself. The concept of such an all-inclusive perspective is as incoherent as the concept of seeing an object from every possible vantage point simultaneously.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche\u2019s perspectivism has sometimes been mistakenly identified with relativism and skepticism<\/a>. Nonetheless, it raises the question of how one is to understand Nietzsche\u2019s own theses, for example, that the dominant values of the common heritage have been underwritten by an ascetic ideal. Is this thesis true absolutely or only from a certain perspective? It may also be asked whether perspectivism can be asserted consistently without self-contradiction, since perspectivism must presumably be true in an absolute, that is a nonperspectival sense. Concerns such as those have generated much fruitful Nietzsche commentary as well as useful work in the theory of knowledge.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche often identified life itself with the \u201cwill to power<\/a>,\u201d that is, with an instinct for growth and durability. That concept provides yet another way of interpreting the ascetic ideal, since it is Nietzsche\u2019s contention \u201cthat all the supreme values of mankind lack<\/em> this will\u2014that values which are symptomatic of decline, nihilistic<\/em> values, are lording it under the holiest names.\u201d Thus, traditional philosophy, religion, and morality have been so many masks a deficient will to power wears. The sustaining values of Western civilization have been sublimated products of decadence in that the ascetic ideal endorses existence as pain and suffering. Some commentators have attempted to extend Nietzsche\u2019s concept of the will to power from human life to the organic and inorganic realms, ascribing a metaphysics<\/a> of will to power to him. Such interpretations, however, cannot be sustained by reference to his published works.<\/p>\n

The doctrine of eternal recurrence<\/a>, the basic conception of Thus Spoke Zarathustra<\/em>, asks the question \u201cHow well disposed would a person have to become to himself and to life to crave nothing more fervently than the infinite repetition, without alteration, of each and every moment?\u201d Presumably most people would, or should, find such a thought shattering because they should always find it possible to prefer the eternal repetition of their lives in an edited version rather than to crave nothing more fervently than the eternal recurrence of each of its horrors. The person who could accept recurrence without self-deception or evasion would be a superhuman being (\u00dcbermensch<\/em>), a superman<\/a> whose distance from the ordinary man is greater than the distance between man and ape, Nietzsche says. Commentators still disagree whether there are specific character traits that define the person who embraces eternal recurrence.<\/p>\n

Nietzsche\u2019s influence<\/strong><\/p>\n

Nietzsche once wrote that some men are born posthumously, and that is certainly true in his case. The history of philosophy, theology<\/a>, and psychology<\/a> since the early 20th century is unintelligible without him. The German philosophers Max Scheler<\/a>, Karl Jaspers<\/a>, and Martin Heidegger<\/a> laboured in his debt, for example, as did the French philosophers Albert Camus,<\/a> Jacques Derrida<\/a>, and Michel Foucault<\/a>. Existentialism<\/a> and deconstruction<\/a>, a movement in philosophy and literary criticism, owe much to him. The theologians Paul Tillich<\/a> and Lev Shestov acknowledged their debt, as did the \u201cGod is dead\u201d theologian Thomas J.J. Altizer; Martin Buber<\/a>, Judaism<\/a>\u2019s greatest 20th-century thinker, counted Nietzsche among the three most-important influences in his life and translated the first part of Zarathustra<\/em> into Polish. The psychologists Alfred Adler<\/a> and Carl Jung<\/a> were deeply influenced, as was Sigmund Freud<\/a>, who said of Nietzsche that he had a more-penetrating understanding of himself than any man who ever lived or was ever likely to live. Novelists like Thomas Mann<\/a>, Hermann Hesse<\/a>, Andr\u00e9 Malraux<\/a>, Andr\u00e9 Gide<\/a>, and John Gardner<\/a> were inspired by him and wrote about him, as did the poets and playwrights George Bernard Shaw<\/a>, Rainer Maria Rilke<\/a>, Stefan George<\/a>, and William Butler Yeats<\/a>, among others. Nietzsche\u2019s great influence is due not only to his originality but also to the fact that he was one of the German language<\/a>\u2019s most-brilliant prose writers.<\/p>\n

Go to Original \u2013 britannica.com<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Friedrich Nietzsche\u2019s attempts to unmask the motives that underlie traditional Western religion, morality, and philosophy deeply affected generations of theologians, philosophers, psychologists, poets, novelists, and playwrights. He thought through the consequences of the triumph of the Enlightenment\u2019s secularism, expressed in his observation that \u201cGod is dead.\u201d<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":48864,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[214],"tags":[900,2167,642,308],"class_list":["post-169927","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-biographies","tag-biography","tag-friedrich-nietzsche","tag-literature","tag-philosophy"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/169927","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=169927"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/169927\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/48864"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=169927"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=169927"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=169927"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}