{"id":67829,"date":"2015-12-21T12:00:55","date_gmt":"2015-12-21T12:00:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/?p=67829"},"modified":"2015-12-21T02:38:49","modified_gmt":"2015-12-21T02:38:49","slug":"war-on-women-and-minorities-in-colonial-and-post-colonial-burma-myanmar","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/2015\/12\/war-on-women-and-minorities-in-colonial-and-post-colonial-burma-myanmar\/","title":{"rendered":"War on Women and Minorities in Colonial and Post-Colonial Burma [Myanmar]"},"content":{"rendered":"

14 Dec 2015 – <\/em>Rudyard Kipling remarked in From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches<\/em>, \u201cThis is Burma and it will be quite unlike any other land you will know about.\u201d 1 The country indeed has a unique history that has shaped its fiercely independent and authoritarian governments. Perpetual existential threats have created strong ethnic paranoia among the Burmese establishment that has recently culminated in brutal repression of minorities, particularly females.<\/p>\n

\"Burma<\/a>

Burma \/ Myanmar<\/p><\/div>\n

Burma has had to fight off Chinese and Mongol incursions from the porous northeast border for countless centuries. 2 Lavish monuments, such as the gold-plated, 76-carat diamond-topped Shwedagon Pagoda, have made Chinese emperors and generals salivate at the nation\u2019s myriad natural resources, as well as the strategic Irrawaddy River, which flows from China to the Indian Ocean, utilized in ancient times as part of the Southwestern Silk Road. 3<\/p>\n

The British likewise felt awe at the boundless potential of Burma. Not only did Burma contain troves of valuable metals and minerals, but rice paddies and teak. By the late 1930s, Burma would come to produce 40% of the world\u2019s rice exports. 4 The nation-spanning Irrawaddy River could serve as an extremely convenient transit hub between China and British India. As Secretary of State for (British) India, Lord Cranborne, aka Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, remarked in 1867 that, \u201cIt is of primary importance that no other European power insert itself between British Burmah [sic] and China\u2026 The country itself is of no great importance. But an easy communication with the multitudes who inhabit western China is an object of national importance.\u201d 5 Burma was a potential imperial super-highway.<\/p>\n

Thus, Britain proceeded to forcefully annex, in three stages, the various states of Burma between 1824 and 1886. Various British officers stationed in India, such as Rudyard Kipling and George Orwell, moved east to administer the new territory. The colonial government quickly turned Burma into a commodity state. Burmese farmers were producing more and more rice, but they couldn\u2019t keep up with the rising tax rate. As a result, half of all arable land was defaulted on by 1936, leaving them in the hands of British financiers. 6 Along with the taxes, Britain economically enslaved Burma by keeping them in the dark about industrialization, allowing the resource-rich nation to only produce raw materials and food. The colonial government thus set up tariffs that gave British companies a monopoly on the Burmese market; thus, any modern gadgets desired or needed by the Burmese had to be bought at an exorbitant markup from these foreign companies. 7 These economic tactics of colonial subjugation had already been well tested and established in neighboring colony India 8 and would lead to substantial and lasting poverty in both India and Burma. Additionally, this would lead to a culture in Burmese governance that emphasizes economic exploitation over the rights of minority groups.<\/p>\n

Kachin History<\/strong><\/p>\n

The Kachin people of northern Burma have always been largely independent, naturally isolated by their mountains. Kachin\u2019s historical homeland is sandwiched in between China to the north and the Bamar homeland to the south. As such, the Kachin people were frequently consulted by Chinese and Bamar kings and generals whenever they planned to invade the other; Kachin was also renowned for its mercenaries. 9 Due to this respect for the Kachin state\u2019s military significance, it was largely left alone, up until the British colonial conquests of the 1800s. Even after Britain officially completed its conquest of Burma, they still had to fight for control of the hardy Kachin state. Britain\u2019s colonial army launched a brutal anti-guerilla campaign in northern Burma to finally force the Kachin into submission. 10 60 years after Britain took control over most of the Bamar kingdom, the colonial army had to resort to mass executions, burning entire villages, branding thousands of suspects and deploying 32,000 troops to conquer the sparse, quaint Kachin state. 11 Their wide-scale destruction of rebel villages would set the template for the current repression of the Kachin. Christianity followed the colonists and Kachin state became a Christian stronghold, thus creating another cultural barrier between the reclusive state and greater Burma. 12<\/p>\n

Rohingya History<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"Rohingya<\/a>

Rohingya and Bangladeshi migrants in Indonesia’s Aceh Province (Reuters\/Roni Bintang)<\/p><\/div>\n

By contrast, the Burmese Muslims (Rohingya) presiding in the western province of Rakhine (formerly called Arakan) were protected by the British colonial government. Rakhine\u2019s inhabitants have been traced back to the 9th century AD. 13 It became increasingly Islamic starting in the 1400s, but was nonetheless very tolerant towards Hindus & Buddhists. 14 Rakhine straddles the Bay of Bengal on its western border, so many Arabs, Afghans and other Muslims would migrate to Rakhine over the centuries as sailors, mercenaries or merchants, but most Muslims were native converts or converts from Bengal, with whom they shared a porous border. According to a famed court poet from the Arakan Kingdom, Shah Aloal, \u201cThe Muslim population of Arakan consisted roughly of four categories, namely, the Bengali, other Indian, Afro-Asian [Middle Eastern] and native. Among these four categories of the Muslims the Bengali Muslims formed the largest part of the total Muslim population of Arakan. The inflow of the captive Muslims from Lower Bengal contributed much to the ever-increasing Bengali Muslims in the Arakanese kingdom.\u201d 15 Currently, Muslims comprise 29% of Rakhine State. 16 However, they comprise as much as 95% in Taung Pyo Tat Wal District, or 92% in Maung Daw, the third most populous of Rakhine\u2019s districts. 17 It\u2019s important to understand the history of Rohingya citizenship in what is now Burma to grasp the government\u2019s current stance on the Muslim population in Rakhine.<\/p>\n

The Rakhine kingdom became completely autonomous from Bengal and its other neighbors by 1531, taking advantage of Mughal India\u2019s invasion of Bengal. Rakhine enjoyed business and diplomatic relations with Portugal, Afghanistan and the Arab Middle East for centuries. However, they always had a tepid relationship with the Bamar kingdom. The Bamar under King Bodawpaya invaded and conquered Rakhine in 1784. 18 It was a bloody conquest; the Bamar killed a sizable percentage of the population and many of the survivors became refugees in neighboring Bengal. 19 Among those who remained, Bodawpaya enslaved over 20,000. 20 By default, Britain then assumed control of Rakhine after claiming victory in the First Burmese War in 1826. They encouraged countless starving and war-displaced Rohingyas to establish roots in Rakhine. 21 Buddhist Burma came to deeply resent the Muslims as abettors of their colonial subjugation. This animosity was amplified during World War II when British loyalist Rohingyas were caught spying on the liberating Japanese for Britain. 22 The WWII schism created further distrust between the Rohingyas and the Burmese government.<\/p>\n

Post-Colonial Era<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"<\/a>

Buddhist monks attend a Ma Ba Tha ceremony to mark the approval of race and religious laws at Thuwana indoor stadium in Rangoon on Oct. 4. (Lynn Bo Bo\/EPA)<\/p><\/div>\n

This colonial history has largely shaped the current ethnic conflicts that plague the country today. After Burma gained independence from Britain in 1948, the new political entity sought to rally around the Buddhist majority. Burmese culture was officially promoted over those of minorities and Buddhism was declared the state religion in 1961. This led to the formation of the Kachin Independence Organization, enforced by the complementary Kachin Independence Army. 23 The Burmese government has been at war with the KIO, almost unabated, ever since. Burma\u2019s junta fights the Kachin not just for power, but for their huge reservoirs of gold, jade and timber, as well as the commercial route that Kachin provides between China and greater Burma. 24 Monolithic China has replaced the British Empire as the main external actor in the economy of Burma, 25 but countless other nations play a part in the current era of globalized markets, increasingly including the US. From 2012 to 2013, the US rewarded the junta for undertaking democratic reforms (establishing a civilian government) by opening up imports to Burma and increasing the purchase of exports: in the span of this one year, US to imports went from literally nothing to $29.9 million and exports increased by $80 million. 26 During that same span of time, tourism to Burma literally doubled, from about 1 million to 2 million. 27 Inter-Asian and international dollars directly fuel the conflict.<\/p>\n

The Kachin Plight<\/strong><\/p>\n

Since the Burmese Army broke the cease-fire agreement with the KIA in June of 2011, they have unleashed a brutal war against the Kachin people. There are wide scale reports of endemic human rights abuses being committed by government forces. Villagers are frequently enslaved, also referred to as \u201cportering\u201d, by troops. 28 Comprised of mostly women, children and the elderly, these slaves are forced to act as minesweepers and human mules for army supplies. Female porters often became sex slaves, additionally. This doesn\u2019t stop troops from preying on local women to gang-rape. KWAT has documented the rapes of girls from the age of 9 to women as old as 50. In one documented case, soldiers from the 37th Battalion troops gang raped and then killed 39 year old Ma Kaw, alongside her 17 year old daughter, Ma Lu. 29 This endemic sexual violence is supported by and also perpetrated by senior military officials. Two young women in Myitkyina, Kachin\u2019s capital, were raped in public by multiple officers. The Burmese military\u2019s official policy of mass rape was explicitly stated to Mansai villager Kai Nu, who was told by troops that, \u201cthey have been ordered to rape women.\u201d Porters, activists and other villagers are also subject to indiscriminate torture. 30 One porter, when professing innocence and pleading with his torturer, was told, \u201cvillagers and KIA are one so you should be beaten.\u201d Murder is also common, especially amongst victims of rape and torture. Army shooting rampages often plague villagers, such as on December 6, 2011 by Lung Bum Hkaraw Ravine, where 200 Burmese troops launched a sneak attack on 34 villagers, killing 3 and wounding more. 31 In the Kachin state, the enemy and the people are one and the same.<\/p>\n

The Rohingya Plight<\/strong><\/p>\n

Rohingyas are also official targets for oppression. Burma doesn\u2019t recognize them as citizens, despite their documented presence in Rakhine going back to at least the 9th century AD. Even Burmese human rights advocate and Nobel Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi has refused to acknowledge the validity of the Rohingyas\u2019 citizenship. 32 The Burma Citizenship Law of 1982 deliberately made it almost impossible for most Rohingyas to obtain citizenship. Section 4 of this draconian law unilaterally gives the Council of State the authority to decide if any given ethnic group is considered to a national group or not, while Section 8 (b) also gives the Council of State the power to revoke citizenship for anyone who isn\u2019t a \u201ccitizen by birth\u201d 33 Simply being born in Burma doesn\u2019t automatically qualify a person for citizenship; Burmese law thus effectively leaves every Rohingya child born stateless, a violation of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. 34 Section 3 states that anyone whose ancestors have lived in the country since 1823 are considered citizens of Burma. 35 It\u2019s been proven by a long line of independent historians, anthropologists and archaeologists that the Rohingya people have been in modern-day Burma since well before this imposed 1823 minimum. In spite of the facts, the official Burmese government narrative continues to state that the Rohingyas are illegal immigrants from Bangladesh; U Shwe Mg of the Rakhine Nationalities Development Party declared to al-Jazeera that, \u201cThe so-called Rohingya are just illegal immigrants. We allowed them to settle down here because we are generous people and we thought they would just stay a while.\u201d 36<\/p>\n

President Thein Sein commissioned the Rakhine Investigative Council, ostensibly to study the strife; they released their findings in the Rakhine State Action Plan, which referred to the Rohingyas both pejoratively and inaccurately as \u201cBengalis\u201d 37 and demanded that the Rohingyas refer to themselves likewise. 38 One Sittwe woman declared that she would rather, \u201cbe a beggar than signing those documents the government is pressing onto us to allow our resettlement, because in those papers they state that we are Bengali.\u201d 39 Ahead of a May 29, 2015 conference in Thailand on the issue of the Rohingya refugee crisis, the Burmese delegation stated their refusal to attend if the term \u201cRohingya\u201d was used. 40 Lieutenant General Ko Ko summed up the goals of the government\u2019s plans for Rohingya situation as being the, \u201ctightening the regulations in order to handle travelling, birth, death, immigration, migration, marriage, constructing of new religious buildings, repairing and land ownership and right to construct buildings of Bengalis under the law.\u201d 41<\/p>\n

Continuing the legal maneuvers set by the Burma Citizenship Law of 1982 against the Rohingya people are Sections 42-44. Since the Rohingyas don\u2019t meet the \u201c1823\u201d qualification for citizenship according to the bureaucracy in Naypyidaw, they would have to seek \u201cnaturalized citizenship\u201d instead. Under the tenets of Section 43, you can only apply for naturalized citizenship if at least one of your parents is already registered as one of the forms of citizen. Thus, all children born to a pair of undocumented Rohingya parents are summarily denied citizenship. According to Section 42, it\u2019s also possible to achieve naturalized citizenship, provided that you are able to procure \u201cconclusive evidence\u201d. This is simply impossible for Rohingyas by and large, due to the fact there were scant few family registry records recorded in pre-industrial colonial Burma. 42 Even the average American would have to shell out good money on a site like ancestry.com to try accessing pre-1950s family records. There is also a third tier of citizenship, \u201cassociate citizenship\u201d, but the deadline to apply for that was October 15, 1982. 43<\/p>\n

After independence from Britain, the non-citizen Rohingyas were paradoxically barred from seceding. Their movements within Burma have been highly restricted by the government since the institution of Act VII of Registration of Foreigners Act, 1940. 44 A displaced Rohingya living in a camp outside the Rakhine state capital of Sittwe, Muhammad Uslan, summarized the current situation, \u201cWe are caged like animals here. We cannot work or go to the town to buy things. Our young people grow up knowing they will never be able to go to university.\u201d 45<\/p>\n

Rohingyas are, like their fellow Kachins, subject to portering; not only are they not considered citizens, they are also forced to work for the state that doesn\u2019t accept them as such. Rape is an endemic form of violence that is likewise used to subjugate the Rohingya people. In one northern Maungdaw village alone, human rights activists recorded 13 different rapes on the night of February 20, 2013. 46 Mass rape has been documented as a weapon used against the Rohingya people since at least 1992, a time when the government was undertaking an anti-Rohingya campaign. 47 Prominent Buddhist monks, like Wirathu, preach Islamaphobia that has incited massive pogroms. Wirathu told Time Magazine that Muslims, \u201care breeding so fast and they are stealing our women, raping them.\u201d 48<\/p>\n

Hundreds of Muslims have been killed since the junta fell in Islamaphobic riots that are increasingly being considered by outside observers to be genocide. 49 140,000 were internally displaced in 2012 alone due to the violence, while another 86,000 fled the country.50 Human Rights Watch has concluded that the Burmese government and security forces were not only complicit in the anti-Rohingya violence of 2012, but were active participants. 51 About 1500 Rohingya refugees have been imprisoned by human traffickers in Thailand, awaiting \u201cdeportation.\u201d 52 Thai newspapers report that 40,000 Rohingyas are estimated to have been trafficked last year in Thailand, often with the help of the Thai authorities, who want the refugees out of the country. Many of the women and children are specifically funneled into Thailand\u2019s lucrative sex industry. 53 The wave of refugees continues as the Burmese government turns a blind eye \u2014 and sometimes participates in \u2014 to the Islamaphobic pogroms in Rakhine.<\/p>\n

The Burmese government and their multinational corporate partners are interested in tapping Rakhine\u2019s massive oil and gas reserves. 54 Rakhine\u2019s strategic location by the Bay of Bengal also creates a demand for Burmese commercial access to the area. State-owned China National Petroleum Corporation is funding $2.5 billion on the Kyaukpyu (a Rakhine port city) Shwe Gas Pipeline, which will shuttle oil in between China and the Bay of Bengal. 55 Locals have staged protests against it, complaining that all the proceeds from the endeavor will go to either Chinese businessmen or Burmese politicians. Thus, the recent opening-up of Burma\u2019s economy to the outside world must be viewed with a critical eye, rather than just with blind praise.<\/p>\n

Women in Burma<\/strong><\/p>\n

\"Rohingya<\/a>

Rohingya migrants who arrived in Indonesia last week by boat walk back after collecting breakfast at a temporary shelter near Langsa on Wednesday. Darren Whiteside\/Reuters<\/p><\/div>\n

Women in Burma have been historically much enfranchised. They had a lot of freedom in public and respect in the household. It was common for women to work outside the home and they were generally treated as equals. 56 Kipling and Orwell, being raised in the shadow of Victorian culture, were very impressed by the Burmese woman\u2019s spirit. However, decades of rule by the junta has caused a precipitous drop in respect for human rights, particularly for women. From opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi to AIDS activist Phyu Phyu Thin, any woman who has made the military regime feel uneasy has been hunted by the police. 57 Women who are incarcerated for political crimes are often raped, tortured, killed or \u201cdisappeared\u201d, such as student activist Thin Thin Aye. 58<\/p>\n

This has led to an environment that undermines all women and girls. Rape is endemic in areas under Army occupation. Pregnancy termination is banned in all but cases in which the mother\u2019s life is endangered. 59 A woman can be sentenced to up to seven years in prison for illegally terminating her pregnancy. 60 There is very little access to contraceptives, either. According to the research of Liz Sime at Marie Stopes International, 2\/3 of the population has inadequate access to contraceptives. 61 Even sex education is forbidden, as evidenced by the arrest warrants for Phyu Phyu Thin and other reproductive health educators. Research done by the Reproductive Health Response in Crises Consortium imply that over half of maternal deaths were due to post-abortion complications. 62 These dismal statistics are unlikely to change anytime soon, even with generous pledges from sponsors of the Millenium Development Goals ($300 million); the program director of the Burma Medical Association, Saw Nay Htoo, lamented that, \u201cEven with ceasefires with the ethnic groups, direct support from the Burmese government is still not there. There is no concrete progress we can see.\u201d 63<\/p>\n

Paradoxically, there is a 2-child policy amongst the Rohingyas, enforced by fines and imprisonment. 64 This eugenic policy is meant to gradually reduce the Muslim population; in 3rd World countries, the replacement fertility rate can be as high as 3.4. To use a frame of reference, the fertility replacement rate in East Africa is 2.94; lowering the birth rate to 2 would lead to an eventual generational population decrease of about 1\/3. 65 The military and government are almost exclusively male. This hegemony is maintained by the persecution of female opposition leaders like Suu Kyi and women\u2019s rights advocates. Even minority guerilla groups are dominated by men. Moon Nay Li of KWAT noted that, \u201cit\u2019s a bit difficult to talk about women\u2019s participation in this process and in politics, because in our culture and tradition, the men feel the [sic] man have to do [this], it is their duty.\u201d 66 Everyone in every faction of Burmese society, military and governance must work to include the thoughts and actions of women (half the total population) in local and national policies and mediation. Moon Nay Li then warns, \u201cIf women are not involved in the ceasefire process, and I mean at every step, every level of the process, if women are not participating, the consequences might be a longer conflict in Burma, and the fighting will not stop.\u201d 67<\/p>\n

Even the name of the country is ethnically divisive. It was changed in the aftermath of the wide-scale \u201888 Uprising, from Burma to Myanmar. 68 The junta derided the colonial name and presented \u201cMyanmar\u201d as the post-colonial alternative, inclusive to all ethnicities. The British colonial government derived the name \u201cBurma\u201d from the Bamar people, the traditional inhabitants of the Irrawaddy Valley and long-time majority group in the region that would become a future nation. 69 However, critics have pointed out that \u201cMyanmar\u201d is the term that the Bamar people called themselves. 70 Thus, \u201cBurma\u201d and \u201cMyanmar\u201d have the same denotation. During the colonial era, everyone in the country unified under the term \u201cBurma\u201d, becoming used to the name. Ethnic minorities saw the name change as just another unwelcome reminder of the Bamars\u2019 dominance of government. Aung San Suu Kyi and the opposition continue to avoid using the term \u201cMyanmar\u201d, as they connotate it with Bamar oppression of other ethnicities. 71<\/p>\n

Conclusions<\/strong><\/p>\n

British colonial rule paved the way for the strict authoritarianism that Burma is now at least attempting to move away from with \u201ccivilian rule\u201d. For too long, the Burmese government has, like imperial Britain, used oppression as an official tool to stay in power, using draconian and deliberate laws and wide-scale violence against primarily women and children. Bamar ultra-nationalism has led to the systemic disenfranchisement of minority groups, to the extent that the Rohingyas aren\u2019t even considered citizens. Local Burmese intellectuals joke that George Orwell wrote not only one book about Burma, but a trilogy: Burmese Days, Animal Farm and 1984. 72 The government and domineering military will have to immediately suspend its persecution of minorities and then negotiate for the extraction and sharing of indigenous commodities. Burma\u2019s President-Elect must also act to stop the hate-mongering invoked by prominent monks and intervene in any future pogroms; he can no longer look the other way when it comes to anti-Muslim rioting. Full suffrage should be granted to the Rohingya, in order to fully facilitate Burma\u2019s transition from junta to democracy. All of Burma\u2019s ethnicities must ultimately play a part in the reconciliation and redemption of the country and should have an equal role in shaping its democratic future.<\/p>\n

Bibliography<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cA Crisis for Burmese Reproductive Healthcare.\u201d Gender Across Borders RSS. N.p., 5 Mar. 2012. Web. <http:\/\/www.genderacrossborders.com\/2012\/03\/05\/a-crisis-for-burmese-reproductive-healthcare\/>.<\/p>\n

Ahmed, Nafeez. \u201cBig Oil, Burma and the Genocide Against the Rohingya.\u201d Environment Blog Network. 29 Apr. 2013. <http:\/\/www.nafeezahmed.com\/2013\/04\/big-oil-burma-and-genocide-against.html>.<\/p>\n

Aldama, Zigor. \u201cMyanmar\u2019s Buddhist-Rohingya Ethnic Divide.\u201d Al Jazeera English. February 4, 2014. http:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/indepth\/features\/2014\/02\/myanmar-buddhist-rohingya-ethnic-divide-20142211421962209.html.<\/p>\n

Anderson, James A. \u201cChina\u2019s Southwestern Silk Road in World History.\u201d Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. http:\/\/worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu\/6.1\/anderson.html.<\/p>\n

Ashayagachat, Achara. \u201cThai Treatment of Rohingya Highlighted.\u201d Bangkok Post, 1 May 2014. http:\/\/www.bangkokpost.com\/most-recent\/407652\/thai-treatment-of-rohingya-highlighted<\/p>\n

Bagchi, Aniruddha. \u201cWhy Did the Indian Economy Stagnate under the Colonial Rule?\u201d International Growth Centre. September 16, 2013. http:\/\/www.ideasforindia.in\/Article.aspx?article_id=189.<\/p>\n

Banyan, Mr. \u201cBye-bye, Burma, Bye-bye.\u201d The Economist. May 21, 2013. http:\/\/www.economist.com\/blogs\/banyan\/2013\/05\/what-s-name-myanmar.<\/p>\n

Beech, Hannah. \u201cThe Face of Buddhist Terror.\u201d Time. July 1, 2013. http:\/\/content.time.com\/time\/magazine\/article\/0,9171,2146000,00.html<\/p>\n

Bengtsson, Jesper. Aung San Suu Kyi: a Biography (Potomac Books, 2012), 42.
\n\u201cBurma.\u201d Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2014. http:\/\/atlas.media.mit.edu\/profile\/country\/mmr\/<\/p>\n

\u201cBurma.\u201d U.S. Department of State. 2007. <http:\/\/www.state.gov\/j\/drl\/rls\/irf\/2007\/90131.htm>.<\/p>\n

\u201cBurma: Act VII of 1940, Registration of Foreigners Act.\u201d UN Refugee Agency. http:\/\/www.refworld.org\/cgi-bin\/texis\/vtx\/rwmain?page=country&category=LEGAL&publisher=&type=LEGISLATION&coi=MMR&rid=&docid=3ae6b4f118&skip=0.<\/p>\n

\u201cBurma Citizenship Law.\u201d United Nations ACT. http:\/\/www.no-trafficking.org\/content\/Laws_Agreement\/laws_agreement_pdf\/myanmar citizenship law.pdf.<\/p>\n

\u201cBurma: Government Plan Would Segregate Rohingya.\u201d Human Rights Watch. October 3, 2014. http:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2014\/10\/03\/burma-government-plan-would-segregate-rohingya<\/p>\n

\u201cBurma: Revoke \u2018Two-Child Policy\u2019 For Rohingya.\u201d Human Rights Watch. 28 May 2013. <http:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2013\/05\/28\/burma-revoke-two-child-policy-rohingya>.<\/p>\n

\u201cBurma\u2019s Covered up War: Atrocities Against the Kachin People.\u201d Network for Human Rights Documentation \u2013 Burma. Kachin Women\u2019s Association Thailand. Oct. 2011. <http:\/\/www.nd-burma.org\/hr-reports\/member-report\/item\/79-burmas-covered-up-war-atrocities-against-the-kachin-people.html>.<\/p>\n

\u201cBurma\u2019s Treatment of the Rohingya and International Law.\u201d Burma Campaign UK. April 1, 2013.
\nhttp:\/\/www.burmacampaign.org.uk\/images\/uploads\/Rohingya_and_International_Law.pdf.<\/p>\n

\u201cBurmese Family Planning Left behind.\u201d IRINnews. January 7, 2014. http:\/\/www.irinnews.org\/report\/99431\/burmese-family-planning-left-behind.<\/p>\n

Courage to Resist.\u201d Women\u2019s League of Burma. Nov. 2007. <www.womenofburma.org%2FReport%2Fcourage-to-resist.pdf%E2%80%8E>.<\/p>\n

Espenshade, Thomas, Juan Guzman, and Westoff, Charles. \u201cThe Surprising Global Variation in Replacement Fertility.\u201d Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1 Dec. 2003. <http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1023\/B:POPU.0000020882.29684.8e>.<\/p>\n

Ferrie, Jarred. \u201cRights Groups Condemn Myanmar\u2019s Rohingya Plan.\u201d Reuters UK. October 3, 2014. http:\/\/uk.reuters.com\/article\/2014\/10\/03\/uk-myanmar-rohingya-idUKKCN0HS0BT20141003.<\/p>\n

\u201cFinal Report of Inquiry Commission on Sectarian Violence in Rakhine State.\u201d Rakhine Inquiry Commission. July 8, 2013. Pg. 94. http:\/\/www.burmalibrary.org\/docs15\/Rakhine_Commission_Report-en-red.pdf.<\/p>\n

Galache, Carlos. \u201cReflections on Kachin History.\u201d Irrawaddy Journal Magazine. July 28, 2012. http:\/\/www.irrawaddy.org\/interview\/reflections-on-kachin-history-2.html.<\/p>\n

Gutman, Pamela. \u201cBurma\u2019s Lost Kingdom\u201d Orchid Press, Bangkok, 2001, p.5.<\/p>\n

Hamling, Amie. \u201cRohingya: The Most Persecuted Refugees in the World.\u201d Amnesty Australia. August 13, 2014. http:\/\/www.amnesty.org.au\/refugees\/comments\/35290\/.<\/p>\n

Hammond, Dom. \u201cThe Genocide Happening Right Now That Nobody Is Talking About.\u201d Mic.com\/policy. 28 Aug. 2013. <http:\/\/www.genocidewatch.org\/images\/Burma_2013_08_28_The_Genocide_Nobody_is_Talking_About.pdf>.<\/p>\n

Hedstr\u00f6m, Jenny. \u201cWhere Are the Women? Negotiations for Peace in Burma.\u201d The Swedish Burma Committee, May 2013. <http:\/\/www.burmakommitten.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/05\/Where-are-the-women_SBC-May-2013large2.pdf>.<\/p>\n

Hussain, Misha. \u201cRohingya Refugees Leave Burma to Seek Help in Bangladesh \u2013 Video.\u201d Guardian News and Media, 22 June 2012. <http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/global-development\/video\/2012\/jun\/22\/rohingya-refugees-burma-bangladesh-video>.<\/p>\n

\u201cJade and Gold at Heart of Myanmar Civil War.\u201d Agence France Presse. http:\/\/www.alternet.org\/rss\/breaking_news\/1002454\/jade_and_gold_at_heart_of_myanmar_civil_war<\/p>\n

Jones, Martin. \u201cThe War of Lost Footsteps. A Re-assessment of the Third Burmese War, 1885\u20131896.\u201d Bulletin of the Military Historical Society. #157. (1989)<\/p>\n

\u201cKachin History\u201d. Kachin National Organization. <http:\/\/www.kachinland.org\/index.php\/resources\/kachin-history>.<\/p>\n

Katayama, Lisa. \u201cRape As a Weapon.\u201d Mother Jones. February 22, 2005. http:\/\/www.motherjones.com\/politics\/2005\/02\/rape-weapon.<\/p>\n

\u201cKing Bodawpaya.\u201d Myanmar\u2019s Net Inc, Myanmar ICT Park Universities Hlaing Campus, Yangon. http:\/\/www.myanmars.net\/myanmar-history\/king-bodawpaya.htm.<\/p>\n

Kipling, Rudyard. \u201cFrom Sea to Sea\u201d. Ch. 2. https:\/\/ebooks.adelaide.edu.au\/k\/kipling\/rudyard\/seatosea\/chapter2.html<\/p>\n

Ko, Myo Zaw. \u201cRakhine Leaders to Press China on Controversial Myanmar Projects.\u201d Radio Free Asia. June 16, 2014. http:\/\/www.rfa.org\/english\/news\/myanmar\/projects-06162014172443.html.<\/p>\n

Larkin, Emma. \u201cExploring Burma Through George Orwell.\u201d July 19, 2005. http:\/\/www.npr.org\/templates\/story\/story.php?storyId=4761169.<\/p>\n

Lieberman, Victor. \u201cStrange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830, Volume 1.\u201d Integration on the Mainland (Cambridge University Press, 2003), 88\u2013112.<\/p>\n

Luscombe, Stephen. \u201cBritish Empire: Asia: Burma.\u201d http:\/\/www.britishempire.co.uk\/maproom\/burma.htm.<\/p>\n

Mon, Kyaw Hsu. \u201cAmid Burma Tourism Boom, Calls for Govt to Aid Development.\u201d The Irrawaddy. January 6, 2014. http:\/\/www.irrawaddy.org\/burma\/amid-burma-tourism-boom-calls-govt-aid-development.html.<\/p>\n

\u201cMuslim Influence in the Kingdom of Arakan.\u201d Arakan Rohingya National Organisation. November 14, 2011. http:\/\/www.rohingya.org\/portal\/index.php\/scholars\/65-nurul-islam-uk\/293-muslim-influence-in-the-kingdom-of-arakan.html.<\/p>\n

\u201cMyanmar Denies Responsibility for Migrant Boat Crisis.\u201d BBC News. May 16, 2015. http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/world-asia-32766748.<\/p>\n

\u201cMyanmar: The Politics of Rakhine State.\u201d Crisis Group International, Belgium. October 22, 2014. http:\/\/www.crisisgroup.org\/~\/media\/Files\/asia\/south-east-asia\/burma-myanmar\/261-myanmar-the-politics-of-rakhine-state.pdf.<\/p>\n

\u201cNo Easy Solution for Myanmar\u2019s Rakhine Crisis.\u201d IRINnews. November 4, 2014. http:\/\/www.irinnews.org\/report\/100793\/no-easy-solution-for-myanmar-s-rakhine-crisis.<\/p>\n

Qanungo, Dr. Suniti Bhushan. \u201cA History of Chittagong Vol. 1\u201d, Signet Library, 1998, Pg. 291.<\/p>\n

\u201cOngoing Impunity.\u201d Kachin Women\u2019s Association Thailand. 8 June 2012. <www.nd-burma.org%2Fhr-reports%2Fmember-report%2Fitem%2Fdownload%2F91.html%E2%80%8E>.<\/p>\n

Orwell, George. \u201cHow a Nation Is Exploited \u2013 The British Empire in Burma.\u201d May 4, 1929. http:\/\/theorwellprize.co.uk\/george-orwell\/by-orwell\/essays-and-other-works\/how-a-nation-is-exploited-the-british-empire-in-burma\/.<\/p>\n

\u201cRapes by Burmese Security Forces \u2018may Cause More Strife\u2019 in Troubled Region.\u201d The Guardian. February 26, 2013. http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2013\/feb\/26\/burma-security-forces-rape-arakan.<\/p>\n

Sein, Daw Mya. \u201cThe Women of Burma.\u201d The Atlantic. 1 Feb. 1958. <http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/magazine\/archive\/1958\/02\/the-women-of-burma\/306822\/>.<\/p>\n

Sidasathian, Chutima, and Alan Morison. \u201cRohingya Refugees Being \u2018held in Secret Thai Jungle Camps and Sold to Human Traffickers’\u201d South China Morning Post. 4 Nov. 2013. Web. <http:\/\/www.scmp.com\/news\/asia\/article\/1373153\/thailands-secret-rohingya-refugee-camps>.<\/p>\n

Szczepanski, Kallie. \u201cWho Are the Rohingya?\u201d New York Times. <http:\/\/asianhistory.about.com\/od\/Asian_History_Terms_N_Q\/g\/Who-Are-The-Rohingya.htm>.<\/p>\n

Thant Myint-U. \u201cThe River of Lost Footsteps\u2013Histories of Burma.\u201d (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006). p. 56.<\/p>\n

\u201cThe Government Could Have Stopped This\u201d Sectarian Violence and Ensuing Abuses in Burma\u2019s Arakan State.\u201d Human Rights Watch. 2012. http:\/\/www.hrw.org\/sites\/default\/files\/reports\/burma0812webwcover_0.pdf.<\/p>\n

\u201cThe KIO\/KIA.\u201d Free Kachin Campaign. <http:\/\/www.freekachin.org\/about\/the-kiokia\/>.<\/p>\n

\u201cTrade in Goods with Burma.\u201d United States Census Bureau, Foreign Trade. https:\/\/www.census.gov\/foreign-trade\/balance\/c5460.html.<\/p>\n

\u201cUnruly Lines.\u201d The Economist. 11 Feb. 2013. <http:\/\/www.economist.com\/blogs\/analects\/2013\/02\/chinas-history-myanmar>.<\/p>\n

Notes:<\/strong><\/p>\n

1. Kipling, Rudyard. From Sea to Sea, Ch. 2. https:\/\/ebooks.adelaide.edu.au\/k\/kipling\/rudyard\/seatosea\/chapter2.html<\/p>\n

2. \u201cUnruly Lines.\u201d The Economist. 11 Feb. 2013. <http:\/\/www.economist.com\/blogs\/analects\/2013\/02\/chinas-history-myanmar>.<\/p>\n

3. Anderson, James A. \u201cChina\u2019s Southwestern Silk Road in World History.\u201d Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. http:\/\/worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu\/6.1\/anderson.html.<\/p>\n

4. Luscombe, Stephen. \u201cBritish Empire: Asia: Burma.\u201d http:\/\/www.britishempire.co.uk\/maproom\/burma.htm.<\/p>\n

5. Bengtsson, Jesper. Aung San Suu Kyi: a Biography (Potomac Books, 2012), 42.<\/p>\n

6. Luscombe, Stephen. \u201cBritish Empire: Asia: Burma.\u201d http:\/\/www.britishempire.co.uk\/maproom\/burma.htm.<\/p>\n

7. Orwell, George. \u201cHow a Nation Is Exploited \u2013 The British Empire in Burma.\u201d May 4, 1929. http:\/\/theorwellprize.co.uk\/george-orwell\/by-orwell\/essays-and-other-works\/how-a-nation-is-exploited-the-british-empire-in-burma\/.<\/p>\n

8. Bagchi, Aniruddha. \u201cWhy Did the Indian Economy Stagnate under the Colonial Rule?\u201d International Growth Centre. September 16, 2013. http:\/\/www.ideasforindia.in\/Article.aspx?article_id=189.<\/p>\n

9. Galache, Carlos. \u201cReflections on Kachin History.\u201d Irrawaddy Journal Magazine. July 28, 2012. http:\/\/www.irrawaddy.org\/interview\/reflections-on-kachin-history-2.html.<\/p>\n

10. Jones, Martin. \u201cThe War of Lost Footsteps. A Re-assessment of the Third Burmese War, 1885\u20131896.\u201d Bulletin of the Military Historical Society. #157. (1989)<\/p>\n

11. Luscombe, Stephen. \u201cBritish Empire: Asia: Burma.\u201d http:\/\/www.britishempire.co.uk\/maproom\/burma.htm.<\/p>\n

12. \u201cKachin History\u201d. Kachin National Organization. <http:\/\/www.kachinland.org\/index.php\/resources\/kachin-history>.<\/p>\n

13. Pamela Gutman, \u201cBurma\u2019s Lost Kingdom\u201d Orchid Press, Bangkok, 2001, p.5.<\/p>\n

14. \u201cMuslim Influence in the Kingdom of Arakan.\u201d Arakan Rohingya National Organisation. November 14, 2011. http:\/\/www.rohingya.org\/portal\/index.php\/scholars\/65-nurul-islam-uk\/293-muslim-influence-in-the-kingdom-of-arakan.html.<\/p>\n

15. Qanungo, Dr. Suniti Bhushan. \u201cA History of Chittagong Vol. 1\u201d, Signet Library, 1998, Pg. 291.<\/p>\n

16. \u201cFinal Report of Inquiry Commission on Sectarian Violence in Rakhine State.\u201d Rakhine Inquiry Commission. July 8, 2013. Pg. 94. http:\/\/www.burmalibrary.org\/docs15\/Rakhine_Commission_Report-en-red.pdf.<\/p>\n

17. \u201cFinal Report of Inquiry Commission on Sectarian Violence in Rakhine State.\u201d
\nRakhine Inquiry Commission. July 8, 2013. Pg. 94. http:\/\/www.burmalibrary.org\/docs15\/Rakhine_Commission_Report-en-red.pdf.<\/p>\n

18. \u201cMyanmar: The Politics of Rakhine State.\u201d Crisis Group International, Belgium. October 22, 2014. http:\/\/www.crisisgroup.org\/~\/media\/Files\/asia\/south-east-asia\/burma-myanmar\/261-myanmar-the-politics-of-rakhine-state.pdf.<\/p>\n

19. \u201cBurma.\u201d U.S. Department of State. 2007. <http:\/\/www.state.gov\/j\/drl\/rls\/irf\/2007\/90131.htm>.<\/p>\n

20. \u201cKing Bodawpaya.\u201d Myanmar\u2019s Net Inc, Myanmar ICT Park Universities Hlaing Campus, Yangon. http:\/\/www.myanmars.net\/myanmar-history\/king-bodawpaya.htm.<\/p>\n

21. Orwell, George. \u201cHow a Nation Is Exploited \u2013 The British Empire in Burma.\u201d May 4, 1929. http:\/\/theorwellprize.co.uk\/george-orwell\/by-orwell\/essays-and-other-works\/how-a-nation-is-exploited-the-british-empire-in-burma\/.<\/p>\n

22. Szczepanski, Kallie. \u201cWho Are the Rohingya?\u201d New York Times. <http:\/\/asianhistory.about.com\/od\/Asian_History_Terms_N_Q\/g\/Who-Are-The-Rohingya.htm>.<\/p>\n

23. \u201cThe KIO\/KIA.\u201d Free Kachin Campaign. <http:\/\/www.freekachin.org\/about\/the-kiokia\/>.<\/p>\n

24. \u201cJade and Gold at Heart of Myanmar Civil War.\u201d Agence France Presse. <http:\/\/www.alternet.org\/rss\/breaking_news\/1002454\/jade_and_gold_at_heart_of_myanmar_civil_war<\/p>\n

25. http:\/\/atlas.media.mit.edu\/profile\/country\/mmr\/ MIT. 2014.<\/p>\n

26. \u201cTrade in Goods with Burma.\u201d United States Census Bureau, Foreign Trade. https:\/\/www.census.gov\/foreign-trade\/balance\/c5460.html.<\/p>\n

27. Mon, Kyaw Hsu. \u201cAmid Burma Tourism Boom, Calls for Govt to Aid Development.\u201d The Irrawaddy. January 6, 2014. http:\/\/www.irrawaddy.org\/burma\/amid-burma-tourism-boom-calls-govt-aid-development.html.<\/p>\n

28. \u201cBurma\u2019s Covered up War: Atrocities Against the Kachin People.\u201d Network for Human Rights Documentation \u2013 Burma. Kachin Women\u2019s Association Thailand. Oct. 2011. <http:\/\/www.nd-burma.org\/hr-reports\/member-report\/item\/79-burmas-covered-up-war-atrocities-against-the-kachin-people.html>.<\/p>\n

29. \u201cBurma\u2019s Covered up War: Atrocities Against the Kachin People.\u201d Network for Human Rights Documentation \u2013 Burma. Kachin Women\u2019s Association Thailand. Oct. 2011. <http:\/\/www.nd-burma.org\/hr-reports\/member-report\/item\/79-burmas-covered-up-war-atrocities-against-the-kachin-people.html>.<\/p>\n

30. \u201cCourage to Resist.\u201d Women\u2019s League of Burma. Nov. 2007. <www.womenofburma.org%2FReport%2Fcourage-to-resist.pdf%E2%80%8E>.<\/p>\n

31. \u201cOngoing Impunity.\u201d Kachin Women\u2019s Association Thailand. 8 June 2012. <www.nd-burma.org%2Fhr-reports%2Fmember-report%2Fitem%2Fdownload%2F91.html%E2%80%8E>.<\/p>\n

32. Hussain, Misha. \u201cRohingya Refugees Leave Burma to Seek Help in Bangladesh \u2013 Video.\u201d Theguardian.com. Guardian News and Media, 22 June 2012. Web. <http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/global-development\/video\/2012\/jun\/22\/rohingya-refugees-burma-bangladesh-video>.<\/p>\n

33. Hussain, Misha. \u201cRohingya Refugees Leave Burma to Seek Help in Bangladesh \u2013 Video.\u201d Theguardian.com. Guardian News and Media, 22 June 2012. Web. <http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/global-development\/video\/2012\/jun\/22\/rohingya-refugees-burma-bangladesh-video>.<\/p>\n

34. \u201cBurma\u2019s Treatment of the Rohingya and International Law.\u201d Burma Campaign UK. April 1, 2013. http:\/\/www.burmacampaign.org.uk\/images\/uploads\/Rohingya_and_International_Law.pdf.<\/p>\n

35. \u201cBurma Citizenship Law.\u201d United Nations Action for Cooperation Against Trafficking in Persons. http:\/\/www.no-trafficking.org\/content\/Laws_Agreement\/laws_agreement_pdf\/myanmar citizenship law.pdf.<\/p>\n

36. Aldama, Zigor. \u201cMyanmar\u2019s Buddhist-Rohingya Ethnic Divide.\u201d Al Jazeera English. February 4, 2014. http:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/indepth\/features\/2014\/02\/myanmar-buddhist-rohingya-ethnic-divide-20142211421962209.html.<\/p>\n

37. \u201cBurma: Government Plan Would Segregate Rohingya.\u201d Human Rights Watch. October 3, 2014. http:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2014\/10\/03\/burma-government-plan-would-segregate-rohingya.<\/p>\n

38. Ferrie, Jarred. \u201cRights Groups Condemn Myanmar\u2019s Rohingya Plan.\u201d Reuters UK. October 3, 2014. http:\/\/uk.reuters.com\/article\/2014\/10\/03\/uk-myanmar-rohingya-idUKKCN0HS0BT20141003.<\/p>\n

39. Aldama, Zigor. \u201cMyanmar\u2019s Buddhist-Rohingya Ethnic Divide.\u201d \u2013 Al Jazeera English. February 4, 2014. http:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/indepth\/features\/2014\/02\/myanmar-buddhist-rohingya-ethnic-divide-20142211421962209.html.<\/p>\n

40. \u201cMyanmar Denies Responsibility for Migrant Boat Crisis.\u201d BBC News. May 16, 2015. http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/world-asia-32766748.<\/p>\n

41. \u201cBurma\u2019s Treatment of the Rohingya and International Law.\u201d Burma Campaign UK. April 1, 2013. http:\/\/www.burmacampaign.org.uk\/images\/uploads\/Rohingya_and_International_Law.pdf.<\/p>\n

42. \u201cBurma\u2019s Treatment of the Rohingya and International Law.\u201d Burma Campaign UK. April 1, 2013. http:\/\/www.burmacampaign.org.uk\/images\/uploads\/Rohingya_and_International_Law.pdf.<\/p>\n

43. \u201cBurma\u2019s Treatment of the Rohingya and International Law.\u201d Burma Campaign UK. April 1, 2013. http:\/\/www.burmacampaign.org.uk\/images\/uploads\/Rohingya_and_International_Law.pdf.<\/p>\n

44. \u201cBurma: Act VII of 1940, Registration of Foreigners Act.\u201d UN Refugee Agency. http:\/\/www.refworld.org\/cgi-bin\/texis\/vtx\/rwmain?page=country&category=LEGAL&publisher=&type=LEGISLATION&coi=MMR&rid=&docid=3ae6b4f118&skip=0.<\/p>\n

45. \u201cNo Easy Solution for Myanmar\u2019s Rakhine Crisis.\u201d IRINnews. November 4, 2014. http:\/\/www.irinnews.org\/report\/100793\/no-easy-solution-for-myanmar-s-rakhine-crisis.<\/p>\n

46. \u201cRapes by Burmese Security Forces \u2018may Cause More Strife\u2019 in Troubled Region.\u201d The Guardian. February 26, 2013. http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2013\/feb\/26\/burma-security-forces-rape-arakan.<\/p>\n

47. Katayama, Lisa. \u201cRape As a Weapon.\u201d Mother Jones. February 22, 2005. http:\/\/www.motherjones.com\/politics\/2005\/02\/rape-weapon.<\/p>\n

48. Beech, Hannah. \u201cThe Face of Buddhist Terror.\u201d Time. July 1, 2013. http:\/\/content.time.com\/time\/magazine\/article\/0,9171,2146000,00.html<\/p>\n

49. Hammond, Dom. \u201cThe Genocide Happening Right Now That Nobody Is Talking About.\u201d Mic.com\/policy. 28 Aug. 2013. <http:\/\/www.genocidewatch.org\/images\/Burma_2013_08_28_The_Genocide_Nobody_is_Talking_About.pdf>.<\/p>\n

50. Hamling, Amie. \u201cRohingya: The Most Persecuted Refugees in the World.\u201d Amnesty Australia. August 13, 2014. http:\/\/www.amnesty.org.au\/refugees\/comments\/35290\/.
\n51. \u201cThe Government Could Have Stopped This\u201d Sectarian Violence and Ensuing Abuses in Burma\u2019s Arakan State.\u201d Human Rights Watch. 2012. http:\/\/www.hrw.org\/sites\/default\/files\/reports\/burma0812webwcover_0.pdf.<\/p>\n

52. Sidasathian, Chutima, and Alan Morison. \u201cRohingya Refugees Being \u2018held in Secret Thai Jungle Camps and Sold to Human Traffickers’\u201d South China Morning Post. 4 Nov. 2013. Web. <http:\/\/www.scmp.com\/news\/asia\/article\/1373153\/thailands-secret-rohingya-refugee-camps>.<\/p>\n

53. Ashayagachat, Achara. \u201cThai Treatment of Rohingya Highlighted.\u201d Bangkok Post, 1 May 2014. Web. <http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bangkokpost.com%2Fmost-recent%2F407652%2Fthai-treatment-of-rohingya-highlighted>.<\/p>\n

54. Ahmed, Nafeez. \u201cBig Oil, Burma and the Genocide Against the Rohingya.\u201d Environment Blog Network. 29 Apr. 2013. <http:\/\/www.nafeezahmed.com\/2013\/04\/big-oil-burma-and-genocide-against.html>.<\/p>\n

55. Ko, Myo Zaw. \u201cRakhine Leaders to Press China on Controversial Myanmar Projects.\u201d Radio Free Asia. June 16, 2014. http:\/\/www.rfa.org\/english\/news\/myanmar\/projects-06162014172443.html.<\/p>\n

56. Sein, Daw Mya. \u201cThe Women of Burma.\u201d The Atlantic. 1 Feb. 1958. <http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/magazine\/archive\/1958\/02\/the-women-of-burma\/306822\/>.<\/p>\n

57. Courage to Resist.\u201d Women\u2019s League of Burma. Nov. 2007. <www.womenofburma.org%2FReport%2Fcourage-to-resist.pdf%E2%80%8E>.<\/p>\n

58. Courage to Resist.\u201d Women\u2019s League of Burma. Nov. 2007. <www.womenofburma.org%2FReport%2Fcourage-to-resist.pdf%E2%80%8E>.<\/p>\n

59. \u201cA Crisis for Burmese Reproductive Healthcare.\u201d Gender Across Borders RSS. N.p., 5 Mar. 2012. Web. <http:\/\/www.genderacrossborders.com\/2012\/03\/05\/a-crisis-for-burmese-reproductive-healthcare\/>.<\/p>\n

60. \u201cBurmese Family Planning Left behind.\u201d IRINnews. January 7, 2014. http:\/\/www.irinnews.org\/report\/99431\/burmese-family-planning-left-behind.<\/p>\n

61. \u201cBurmese Family Planning Left behind.\u201d IRINnews. January 7, 2014. http:\/\/www.irinnews.org\/report\/99431\/burmese-family-planning-left-behind.<\/p>\n

62. \u201cA Crisis for Burmese Reproductive Healthcare.\u201d Gender Across Borders RSS. N.p., 5 Mar. 2012. Web. <http:\/\/www.genderacrossborders.com\/2012\/03\/05\/a-crisis-for-burmese-reproductive-healthcare\/>.<\/p>\n

63. \u201cBurmese Family Planning Left behind.\u201d IRINnews. January 7, 2014. http:\/\/www.irinnews.org\/report\/99431\/burmese-family-planning-left-behind.<\/p>\n

64. \u201cBurma: Revoke \u2018Two-Child Policy\u2019 For Rohingya.\u201d Human Rights Watch. 28 May 2013. <http:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2013\/05\/28\/burma-revoke-two-child-policy-rohingya>.<\/p>\n

65. Espenshade, Thomas, Juan Guzman, and Charles Westoff. \u201cThe Surprising Global Variation in Replacement Fertility.\u201d Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1 Dec. 2003. <http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1023\/B:POPU.0000020882.29684.8e>.<\/p>\n

66. Hedstr\u00f6m, Jenny. \u201cWhere Are the Women? Negotiations for Peace in Burma.\u201d The Swedish Burma Committee, May 2013. Web. <http:\/\/www.burmakommitten.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/05\/Where-are-the-women_SBC-May-2013large2.pdf>.<\/p>\n

67. Hedstr\u00f6m, Jenny. \u201cWhere Are the Women? Negotiations for Peace in Burma.\u201d The Swedish Burma Committee, May 2013. Web. <http:\/\/www.burmakommitten.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/05\/Where-are-the-women_SBC-May-2013large2.pdf>.<\/p>\n

68. Bengtsson, Jesper. Aung San Suu Kyi: a Biography (Potomac Books, 2012), 37.<\/p>\n

69. Lieberman, Victor. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830, Volume 1, Integration on the Mainland (Cambridge University Press, 2003), 88\u2013112.<\/p>\n

70. Thant Myint-U. The River of Lost Footsteps\u2013Histories of Burma (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006), 56.<\/p>\n

71. Banyan, Mr. \u201cBye-bye, Burma, Bye-bye.\u201d The Economist. May 21, 2013. http:\/\/www.economist.com\/blogs\/banyan\/2013\/05\/what-s-name-myanmar.<\/p>\n

72. \u201cExploring Burma Through George Orwell.\u201d July 19, 2005. http:\/\/www.npr.org\/templates\/story\/story.php?storyId=4761169.<\/p>\n

Go to Original \u2013 eurasiareview.com<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Perpetual existential threats have created strong ethnic paranoia among the Burmese establishment that has recently culminated in brutal repression of minorities, particularly females.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[56],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-67829","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-asia-pacific"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/67829","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=67829"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/67829\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=67829"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=67829"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.transcend.org\/tms\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=67829"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}